Articles:Design Factors for Educationally Effective Animations and Simulations
From unthinkMedia
Considerations
- educational objectives
- content
- learner characteristics
- educational settings
- plans for curricular integration
information design
how to represent content and controls in the visual interface
interaction design
- tool and features
- leaning stratagies
- scaffolds
- controls
- navigational tools
dynamic visualizations
Höffler and Leutner (2007) revealed a medium-sized overall advantage of dynamic over static visualizations.
- dynamic visualizations are more effective than static visualizations only when they are of a representational rather than decorative nature
- dynamic visuals should be used to convey information that static pictures cannot.
- decorative animations & dynamic visualizations that do not offer information or elicit mental activity beyond that in static visualizations are likely to increase extraneous cognitive load
- suggest using schematic rather than realistic visuals
Visual Processes
Bottom-up processes are based on perceptual properties of objects, such as contrast and visual uniqueness.
Top-down processes are intentional and based on the perceiver’s knowledge, goals and expectations.
Dual Coding Theory
- related information that is concurrently processed in both systems can enhance recall
Cognitive Load Theory
- cognitive constraints of limited working memory
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
- describes cognitive processes involved in learning from multimedia materials.
- comprehension enhanced when text is accompanied by visuals compared to when text is presented alone
Integrated Model of Text and Picture Comprehension
- processing of descriptive, textual input of symbolic information
- depictive, visual input of iconic information
- in processing symbolic or iconic representations, learners always construct multiple mental representations
- When processing symbolic representations, learners use the presented text as well as their prior knowledge in order to construct a propositional model of the text as well as a mental model with related visualizations of the information
- when processing iconic representations, learners also construct both forms of internal representations.
- the multimedia principle - comprehension and transfer are enhanced when text is accompanied by visuals compared to when text is presented alone
Split Attention Principle
- when two sources of visual information are presented together, learners experience higher cognitive load and reduced learning when the information is presented in separated rather than in integrated form
conjoint retention hypothesis
- for specific types of visual materials, such as maps, learning materials are more effective when maps are presented before accompanying text.
General Design Principles
redundancy principle
- No need for learners to process information they already know
- No on-screen text that is identical to text already included in a narration
personalization principle
- use conversational rather than a formal style of communication with learner
Visual Design Principles
Split-Attention Principle
- comprehension of multimedia materials is hindered “when learners are required to split their attention between and mentally integrate several sources of physically or temporally disparate information, where each source of information is essential for understanding the material.”
- A learner will only experience a split attention effect if both sources of information are essential for comprehension
- To avoid this, designers can integrate the sources with one another, both in their physical arrangement as well as the timing of their presentation
Spatial and Temporal Contiguity Principle
- presenting related sources of information close to one another, rather than separated, enhances learning by reducing extraneous visual search tasks
- this includes timing of information
Cueing
animations should either make the educationally most important aspects of the animation the visually most salient ones, or should use cueing to direct learners’ attention to critical information
- refers to the addition of design elements that direct the learner’s attention to important aspects of the learning material
- can reduce cognitive load because it can reduce learners’ search for key information.
- visual cueing of critical information of a dynamic visualization will help to counter the issues of complexity and pacing evident in dynamic representations
- may have reduced cognitive load by requiring fewer cognitive resources to be expended on searching for the relevant visual information
- dynamically represented content itself can serve as cues.
- Learners focus their attention relatively narrowly on the visually most salient components of an animation
Representation Type of Information
- pictorial (iconic) representations reduced extraneous load compared to the written (symbolic) information
- comprehension is higher from graphical feedback than textual feedback
Multiple Dynamic Visual Representations
- representations provide complementary processes or information
- one representation better defines (constrains) the information in the other representation
- comparing or contrasting multiple representations to construct understanding
- providing learners with opportunities to actively integrate static visuals with symbolic information before engaging in interactive simulations has been found to support learning
- the need to integrate and link multiple dynamic visual representations has been found to support learning
Interaction Design Principles
Segmenting
- allowing learners to advance the presentation from one segment to the next rather than viewing a continuous presentation
- By allowing material to be broken into segments learners could pace and distribute cognitive load over time in order to effectively process material
Pacing
- learner control
- has been shown to improve learning
- may reduce the working memory load of visually presented material
- continuous dynamic media, such as animation and video
- finer level of granularity compared to segmenting (play, pause, stop, slow motion, rewind etc)
Exploration v. Worked-Out Examples
- dynamic displays that require no interaction may lead to passive viewing.
Pedagogical Design Features
Coherence
- eliminating irrelevant information frees up cognitive resources so they can be used for essential processing
- added information that does not pertain the instructional goal, be it in the form of words or pictures, presents extraneous cognitive load that inhibits cognitive processing and transfer of knowledge.
- people learn better when extraneous material of any modality is excluded from multimedia instructional tools.
Guided-Discovery Principle
- individuals learn better when guidance is used in discovery based learning in multimedia contexts
- novice learners often struggle with exploratory learning when there are no supports to guide their efforts
- feedback that is rich in domain information and is easily interpreted seems to be effective in promoting learning from simulations.
Reflection
- computer-based learning should provide many opportunities for students to reflect on the process of gaining knowledge
- explaining your answers
Worked-out Example Principle
- when learners are asked to study workedout examples rather than actually solving problems independently there test performance is improved
- There is research to indicate that learning from simulations may be more effective than learning from computer-based worked-out examples.
Task Appropriateness
- The efficacy of a simulation depends on the degree to which it is in line with learning objectives
- germane cognitive load may be reduced by animating the simulation content
- task-inappropriate visuals may increase extraneous cognitive load.
